The fisheries sector is of critical importance to Sri Lanka from both a food security and a livelihoods perspective. In 2019, Sri Lanka’s marine fisheries supported over 185,000 households and 2.7 million “fishing and related households” (MoF, 2020, pp. iv). Some 50-60 percent of the animal protein consumed in Sri Lanka is estimated to comprise fish.
Considering the importance of the fisheries sector, it is important to understand how those engaged in fishing and other associated livelihoods have coped with the series of crises that have taken in place in succession. This article is based on findings from a study conducted to explore how these crises were experienced and the capacities of the communities to face them.
The preliminary data collection took place in three towns in Negombo. When the initial data was collected in March 2022, the main issue the people experienced were impacts from the state-imposed restrictions such as curfews and lockdowns to mitigate the Covid-19 pandemic, and the restriction of fishing and activities on the shore which was imposed to mitigate the impact of the cargo ship the X-Press Pearl which sunk. By the time the final data collection was done between March and June 2022, the communities were facing the brunt of the impacts of the economic crisis.
Although the study was aimed at being wider in scope, the crises mentioned, limited the capacity to conduct a more extensive data collection process. This was due to the schedules of the fishers which became busier with needing to divide their time to fulfil multiple needs (which included but was not limited to spending time in multiple queues) adding to their distress.
Apart from these crises, the fishers also described how they feel about the impacts which certain development projects such as the Port City Project and the recently initiated development activities in the Colombo Port, have had on the fishery.
The fishers who were consulted were mainly from two societies, one of which is a Rural Fisher’s Society (RFS) while the other is a Fisher’s Cooperative Society (FCS). Almost all the members of these societies operate Outboard Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (OFRP) boats with a few members operating traditional non mechanised craft such as theppam. Some of the members also operate other craft such as multi day boats.
However, the society’s collective decisions did not impact the fishing activities related to these boats. Other people consulted include members of women’s societies, priests representing both the Sea Street Parish and Grand Street Parish, fish vendors in the fish markets in Palangathurai and Pitipana, and entrepreneurs engaged in selling fishing gear and manufacturing boats. The persons and groups representing the different societies and institutions helped provide context as to how the crises affected the fishers and also the role which societies and institutions play in helping fishers to better face them.
The majority of members of fisher societies operate Outboard Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (OFRP)
Fishing, a keystone
A common sentiment that was articulated by many was that fishing as a livelihood is important to Negombo because so many other livelihoods are dependent on the fishers who facilitate and support them both directly and indirectly.
For example, when discussing livelihoods such as Dhal Berima (Releasing fish from the nets), Bottu Adhinna/Bottu Bhanna(pushing boats into the sea and pulling them on to the shore), and Kuli Weda (Labourer), fishers highlighted that some people who provide these services are retired fishers, or homeless people who have no other form of livelihood.
Other livelihoods which depend on the fisheries include boat manufacturers and small to large scale retailers of fishing gear, ice manufacturers, dried fish producers, fish vendors, and vendors selling goods (such as polythene bags used by fish vendors), and food for fishers.
For these groups also crises experienced by fishers would directly or indirectly affect them. This is important to keep in mind when exploring the different crises which the fishers have faced as what affects the fishers in Negombo have knock on impacts on a wider range of livelihoods and the local economy.
The fishers operating in this landscape described how they came to experience multiple adverse impacts from several crises, which are described below.
Perceived impacts of the Port City Project and the Development Activities of the Colombo Port
The fishers complained that the Port City Project has led to losses in catch, even though they all described different mechanisms by which these issues manifested. The fishers also described how the targeting process involved with distributing compensation was faulty, and many non fishers were receiving compensation while actual fishers were left out.
Fishers were also wary about the development at the Colombo Port being a potential threat to the local fishery. Although the fishers referred to the project in generic terms, they are probably referring to the construction related to the East Container Terminal which commenced on January 12, 2022 (Abeyratne, 2022; news.lk, 2022; Razick, 2022).
Impact of response to Covid-19
The state’s response to Covid-19 made it difficult for those engaged in fisheries related livelihoods (eg. fishers, fish vendors, dried fish producers etc.) to access markets, because permits had to be obtained by those needing to travel during the lockdowns and curfews. As a mitigatory measure the participants of this study described state funded programs which provided cash transfers and aid packages of dry rations to assist people during lockdowns and curfews.
Outcomes of state interventions to mitigate impacts from the sinking of the X-Press Pearl
Following the sinking of the ship the X-Press Pearl, respondents talked about observing environmental impacts such as an oil layer on the surface of the water, and marine fauna and nurdles washing up ashore. Consumers concerned with the exposure of fish in the surrounding waters being exposed to pollutants had reduced consumption. State support in this instance took the form of compensation. Fishers have been compensated twice for the loss of income, and a third round of compensation is expected to be disbursed soon.
Economic crisis
Currently, the economic crisis is the most severe crisis which the communities are facing. When preliminary data was collected In March 2022, people were engaging in coping strategies to adapt to the situation. For example, switching from the use of Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) to using a rice cooker for cooking (queues for kerosene were already occurring at this stage).
However, participants at the time said that this decision to use electricity resulted in their electricity bills to suddenly rise. In terms of coping strategies affecting livelihoods, there were fishers who sold their gear and opted to switch livelihoods from being independent fishers to workers in multi-day boats or to take on alternative jobs such as becoming a tuktuk driver.
Fishers said that this crisis has posed many obstacles in the path of fishers who are trying to engage in their livelihoods resulting (according to some estimates by the fishers) in only 10 percent of the total fleet being able to fish. Price inflation of goods (including fishing gear and fuel) and the scarcity of kerosene have paralysed the small-scale fishers.
Given that a fisher using nets would require about 40l of fuel to conduct their fishing activities and long line fishers needing even more, with fuel issued being rationed, the distance they can cover is limited. Multi-day boats also require large amounts of fuel and multiple cylinders of LPG per trip which can last for months. The limitations on both types of fuel also limit the operability of these boats. One fisher said that the constraints on their capacity to engage in their livelihoods to a schedule of their choosing, encourages fishers to increase their catch intensity per trip which could lead to unsustainable fishing practices.
The scarcity of fuel also limits their ability to help other fishers who might be stranded at sea. The fishers said that fishers rely on each other’s capabilities to deploy their boats if one of them needs help. Due to this situation, they are far more risk averse when going to sea which further exacerbates the livelihood related issues. Time spent in multiple queues also impacts households by disrupting normal schedules. The participants also spoke about how the economic crisis has impacted their homelife. For example, some of the women spoke of how their families used to consume kilos of fish, however now, the women usually consume less.
To make matters worse, as of August 21, the Ceylon Petroleum Corporation revised the prices of kerosene by raising it from Rs. 87 per litre to Rs. 100 per litre. When asked how this will affect the fisheries, they said that the impacts will be felt unequally and “those at the bottom will disappear” from the sector. While a subsidy - in the form of a direct cash transfer has been proposed to low income families in fisheries and plantation sectors, it may only ease the hardships faced.
When considering these experiences, it is important to understand how fishers operate within an institutional landscape which provide certain benefits such as facilitating the procurement of regulated fishing gear, provisioning of financial assistance and to a certain extent, buffering of adverse impacts.
Mechanisms to target subsidy programs such as what Minister Kanchana Wijesekera has mentioned, would be dependent on information from such institutions.
Institutional role
Based on the information shared by the members, state institutions related to the fisheries engage with fishers both directly and indirectly via the fisher societies.
For activities such as registering fishing boats, state institutions such as the representatives of the Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (DFAR) and the Navy need to be signatories of the relevant documents. However, when purchasing an engine, the vendors need to verify the buyer’s fisher society membership. Many state institutions such as the District Secretariat Offices, Divisional Secretariat Offices and Grama Niladhari Divisions and The Samurdhi Authority engage with the fisher societies when disbursing public goods and services which include welfare benefits and compensation.
Institutional role
However, the institutional role which Fisher Societies play is not limited to helping fishers to better engage with the state. For example, RFS and FCS manage community owned infrastructure which serve fishing communities. The RFS operates a fish market which charges the stall operators (most of whom are women) a monthly fee of Rs. 3,600 per stall and in return provides access to the space and water, and take on the responsibility of keeping the stalls clean.
The FCS operates a Cooperative bank which offers a range of financial services to a broad customer base which is not limited to its members. FCS also operates a fuel station which the members described as one which does engage in profiteering when determining the selling price.
The financial services—such as loans ranging from Rs 25,000-50,000 with a monthly interest of 1 percent—which RFS provides are limited to its members who live in Palangaturai East, Palagathurai East, Eththukala and Daluwakotuwa.
A queue to buy kerosene for cooking and fuel for outboard engines of OFRP boats.
People talked about the advisory role the priests play in their personal lives and in the case of RFS, the priest is involved in the decision making processes as an advisor. A similar role was played by a church in Kuttiduwa and the dried fish producers’ society in Kuttiduwa, Negombo.
The members of the FCS did not mention such a role played by the church within their society. However, according to the history of FCS published in their 25th anniversary souvenir, church leaders have taken part in celebrating important milestones of the society. The document stated that by 1990, a year after it was founded, the cooperative had become inactive, and it was a priest who intervened and reactivated it.
Both fisher societies have contributed to the welfare of their communities. For example, the RFS and the FCS have contributed to a fund collected by their local churches which was used to support their communities during the Covid-19 lockdowns and curfews. FCS also provides a number of welfare benefits to communities living in two Grama Niladhari Divisions. These include an insurance program where the fishers pay into a common pool which helps fund any repairs for damages sustained by a boat operator. The cooperative also annually distributes stationery among the children of the communities they work with.
The churches also play the role of a mediator within their communities. An example would be a conflict which occurred during 2014-2015 between the dried fish producers and the fishers in the area.
The involvement of the church was important to mediate and de-escalate the situation. The church also plays an advocacy role by lobbying for public goods and services for fishers and supporting them by taking part in the protests which fishers organise.
Due to the current economic crisis, it is clear that the state’s capacity to provide public goods and services (especially welfare) is limited, which makes people who rely on public spending particularly vulnerable to the impacts of scarcity coupled with price inflation of essential goods.
Currently third sector organisations have begun certain operations such as the establishment of community kitchens. However, while such endevours could assist a community, it is uncertain to what extent community care can be provided by organisations to a wide base of beneficiaries for an indefinite period of time, which makes relying on such third parties as a state policy, somewhat risky.
Exploratory approach
What is not recommended is a policy of austerity localism. Rather, what is proposed is an exploratory approach which could lead to a more adaptive form of community resilience. One which facilitates information to flow from a range of sources to the institutions where a range of responses could be conceptualised, communicated and deliberated on and mobilised. They should also be monitored to observe feedback processes and deliberated on once again. Such processes would need to be non-linear and iterative (repetitive) and facilitate a range of knowledge systems (scientific and local) and value systems and acknowledge the role of legal pluralism specific to particular contexts.
This is not a recommendation to consider the primacy of the status quo on the ground for certain structures developed by communities, because there is a possibility that they could be stifling for certain groups. For example, during the study, the research did come across communal structures which appear to be discriminatory along gender lines.
Nor should interventions solely focus on disrupting the status quo, and instead work towards building upon the body of local knowledge and experience, for not doing so has historically resulted in creating worse off situations when the interventions have failed to introduce new knowledge and useful techniques to governance regimes.
Considering the resource and capacity limitations faced by the state, it might be strategic for the state to take a more participatory approach towards planning public spending. The challenge for the state would be to work with a heterogenous institutional structure comprising different entities operating in different scales and domains.
The writer is a research consultant – Centre for Poverty Analysis.